Importance: ★★
Discussion
Linking words and phrases are used to enhance cohesion and coherence in your writing. They have a surface function as well as a deeper one. The surface function is to produce a smooth flow between clauses, sentences and paragraphs. Without linking words, even the most logical text would read like a laundry list. Readers appreciate texts that read seamlessly; linking shows consideration for the reader.
The deeper function of linking expressions, which is a rhetorical function, is even more important to understand. Linking expressions carry meaning and hold significant explanatory power. They tell your reader something about how a part of your text is connected to other parts. Words like however, consequently and moreover all describe a certain logical relationship between parts of your text. However describes a contrast, consequently identifies a result, and moreover shows that you are adding information to what you have already said.
Linking expressions may also help your reader see the structure of your text more clearly. Expressions such as firstly and finally indicate sequence and progression. Such expressions encourage certain expectations in a reader, and a phrase like in conclusion will tell your reader to pay attention because your argument or your discussion is coming to an end.
Obviously, misplaced linking expressions can create frustration and confusion in a reader. If you keep adding information after a point you have introduced with finally, for example, the reader will become confused about the structure of your reasoning. Likewise, when however introduces an addition that is not a contrast, the reader will be encouraged to look for information that does not exist.
Perhaps the most common error involving linking expressions in student writing is not to include them when they are necessary. Consider these first two sentences from an argumentative essay:
Printed books have been read and enjoyed by people for centuries. In recent years, devices specifically designed for reading digital books have emerged on the market.
Here, the author does not make clear what the relation between the ideas expressed in the two sentences are. In fact, the relation is one of contrast, meaning that this would be more appropriate:
Printed books have been read and enjoyed by people for centuries. However, in recent years, devices specifically designed for reading digital books have emerged on the market.
Similarly (see how helpful that is!), in the following example, the author makes a concession before presenting the thesis statement, without explicity marking the contrast, which is confusing:
Without a doubt, the increasingly frequent use of English has its advantages as well as its disadvantages. In this essay, I will argue that English should not replace Swedish as the most frequently used language in Swedish universities.
This can easily be resolved in the same way as above:
Without a doubt, the increasingly frequent use of English has its advantages as well as its disadvantages. Nevertheless, in this essay, I will argue that English should not replace Swedish as the most frequently used language in Swedish universities.
Below are some selected linking expression, categorized according to their functions.
| Examples | |
|---|---|
| Sequence | at first, first/ly, to begin with, second/ly, next, lastly |
| Comparison | in comparison, in contrast, similarly |
| Concession | however, nevertheless, on the contrary, still, yet |
| Addition | furthermore, in addition, moreover, nor, what is more |
| Result | accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, so, therefore, thus |
| Apposition | e.g., for example, for instance |
| Explanation | i.e., in other words, that is to say |
| Transition | by the way, meanwhile |
| Emphasis | certainly, naturally, obviously, of course, undoubtedly |
| Summation | all in all, in conclusion, to conclude |
Summary
Linking expressions enhance clarity by pointing out the connections between ideas.
Further Discussion
Here is an example in which the author does a nice job of marking one contrast but fails to mark the contrast that immediately follows:
She fears that her mother might be the one who ultimately deprives her of her dream. The “hot dark kitchen” which she hates has already imprisoned her mother, and she has no desire of being forced to work there as well. Instead she finds joy in assisting her father in his work. Gradually she becomes more and more aware that her father does not view her as his successor, but more as a temporary solution until Laird comes of age.
She fears that her mother might be the one who ultimately deprives her of her dream. The “hot dark kitchen” which she hates has already imprisoned her mother, and she has no desire of being forced to work there as well. Instead she finds joy in assisting her father in his work. Sadly, however, she gradually becomes more and more aware that her father does not view her as his successor, but more as a temporary solution until Laird comes of age.
When combined with a comma splice, the lack of a linking expression can have fairly mystifying effects:
School uniforms are a tradition in many of the countries in the world today, Sweden does not use uniforms in public schools.
This sentence can be saved in various ways. It is certainly possible to use a linking expression:
School uniforms are a tradition in many of the countries in the world today. By contrast, Sweden does not use uniforms in public schools.
However, with such short clauses, it is often best to combine them into a single, complex sentence:
While school uniforms are a tradition in many of the countries in the world today, Sweden does not use uniforms in public schools.
Related Topics
Moving Beyond “And”, Avoiding Comma Splices
Further Resources
Here is a list of linking words and phrases from the Study & Learning Centre at RMIT University.